During the Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912), emigration was heavily restricted for much of the period, with policies fluctuating between strict prohibition and gradual tolerance depending on political, social, and economic conditions.

1. Early Qing Period: Strict Prohibition

• Ban on Overseas Travel:

• In the early Qing Dynasty, particularly after the consolidation of power, emigration was prohibited. This was partly due to concerns over loyalty and security, as the Qing rulers (Manchus) were cautious of potential rebellion and collaboration with external powers.

• The Hai Jin (海禁) or maritime ban forbade maritime trade and travel during the early Qing period (following Ming precedent).

• Targeting Ming Loyalists:

• Emigration bans were also aimed at preventing Ming loyalists from fleeing to nearby territories (e.g., Taiwan, Southeast Asia) to organize resistance against Qing rule.

2. Gradual Relaxation in the 18th Century

• Economic Necessity:

• As the economy grew, the Qing government recognized the value of overseas trade and remittances from emigrants to support local economies, particularly in coastal provinces like Guangdong and Fujian.

• By the mid-18th century, informal migration to Southeast Asia began increasing, often ignored or tolerated by local…